As part of the Hungarian HUNOR program, researchers from the University of Pécs conducted a series of experiments aboard the International Space Station (ISS) during Axiom Mission 4 (June 25 – July 15, 2025). The mission has now been completed, with analysis of the collected data currently in progress. One of the key research initiatives, the MagyAR (Neuromotion VR) project, focused on how brain function, perception, and cognitive performance adapt to microgravity.

See the MagyAR Experiment in Action

A short video prepared by the HUNOR team presents the MagyAR experiment, showcasing the integration of virtual reality and fNIRS to study cognitive and motor processes in microgravity.

Check out the video on LinkedIn

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Introduction

Due to socio-cultural and environmental diversity, rapid urbanization and digitalization, India has a potential for neurodevelopmental studies. Some previous cohort studies have shown that factors such as “socioeconomic status, childhood adversity, maternal mental health, caregiving practices, and environmental toxins all influence cognitive and emotional development” (Holla et al., 2025). However, many cohort studies target late childhood, are not large, and provide only limited combined exposure-outcome information.

As reported by Holla et al. (2025), ICMR in coordination with the National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS) from Bengaluru, launched a large PARAM project, focusing on individuals from the prenatal period into early adulthood across diverse social and ecological settings.

By tracking neurodevelopmental trajectories, linking them to life exposures, and identifying risk and resilience factors, PARAM aims to reveal what shapes mental well-being early in life.

Because of the longitudinal design and national scale, the results of PARAM study will emerge over time. However, the project’s goals, study design, methods, and planned analyses are detailed in the study protocol published in BMC Psychiatry Journal by Holla et al. (2025).

We follow up on the project’s outcomes and findings, as our Photon Cap technology is used as one of the methods to measure cerebral hemodynamic signals from the prefrontal cortex during resting-state sessions as part of the research process.

Objectives

According to Holla et al. (2025), PARAM is primarily designed to track how development unfolds over time, and identify when and why certain pathways diverge, particularly in ways linked to mental health outcomes.

To manage and combine data from multiple sites while accounting for site differences in the analyses, the study protocol sets out the following goals:

1. tracing the development of the brain, cognition, behaviour, and mental health from before birth through early adulthood;
2. examining how maternal stress, nutrition, inflammation, toxins, digital media engagement, and socio-environmental adversity influence development, with focus on critical and sensitive periods;
3. applying gene-to-environment (G×E) approach and normative models to integrate genetic and environmental data and generate individual-level scores for personalized insights;
4. studying the biological, brain imaging, cognitive, and social factors that increase risk or provide protection in the development and progression of psychiatric symptoms;
5. developing an open platform for multimodal data to enable reproducible research and global data sharing;

Timeframe

The PARAM study began in May 2023 with a nine-month preparation phase focused on hiring staff, adapting assessment tools into seven Indian languages, setting up digital systems, and training teams across study sites.

Participant recruitment began in February 2024 and will continue until April 2026, being carried out in phases across study sites.

Baseline assessments are planned to run over 18 months at each site and be completed within three months of a participant’s enrollment, with all assessments scheduled to finish by July 2026.

Participants

PARAM project aims to enroll around 9000 participants, from the prenatal period (before birth up to age 6) through young adulthood (23-30 years), to track early-life exposures (Holla et al., 2025).

Participants are divided into two cohorts:

• pregnant mothers and infants followed from enrolment or birth to age two, with six-monthly assessments to capture changes during the first 1000 days of life;
• ages of 2-30 years with overlapping age groups to enable reconstruction of age-related development within a shorter timeframe.

The study was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committees at all participating sites, and obtained informed consent with written consent from a parent or legal guardian on minors behalf (Holla et al., 2025).

Recruitment takes place in both urban and rural areas, including clinics, community groups, schools, and high-risk settings, to study developmental differences and mental health outcomes.

Methods and Procedures

Participants undergo a combination of assessments including questionnaires (interviewer- and self-administered), performance-based neurocognitive tasks, neurophysiological tests, and neuroimaging protocols.

Assessments are organized into core measures for all participants and deep measures (with fNIRS and MRI) for a subset. Standardized procedures, quality control, and centralized training ensure consistency across sites and visits (Holla et al., 2025).

During the core assessment all participants complete one or two assessment visits lasting about 4-5 hours with breaks. Follow-up visits occur within one month before to three months after the planned date. Any unfinished assessments are completed within three months of recruitment.

The assessment begins with documentation of prenatal growth from ultrasound records and continues with longitudinal developmental assessments spanning infancy to adulthood, including cognitive, social, pubertal, and caregiver-child interaction measures (Holla et al., 2025).

Participants and parents complete age-appropriate questionnaires covering temperament, personality, psychopathology, family history, caregiving context, adversity, and environmental exposures, alongside standardized neuropsychological tasks assessing attention, memory, executive function, and social cognition (Holla et al., 2025).

Anthropometry, nutritional biomarkers, and multi-matrix biospecimens (e.g., blood, saliva, hair, urine) are collected to support genetic, metabolic, inflammatory, hormonal, and environmental exposure analyses (Holla et al., 2025).

Neurophysiological measures include postural balance testing and heart rate variability during rest and isometric stress challenge.

As part of a deep assessment subset, the participants additionally undergo MRI and resting-state fNIRS acquisition, with centralized data management and cross-site quality control procedures.

Data Analysis Approach

Holla et al. (2025) report emphasizes that PARAM handles missing data using likelihood-based methods, multiple imputation, and inverse probability weighting, while accounting for non-random missingness and differences in mode, language, and site.

To detect meaningful patterns, PARAM uses a strategic sampling approach. It intentionally includes more individuals at developmental extremes and across important exposures – such as levels of urbanisation, pollution, and adversity. This boosts the study’s ability to model complex, nonlinear developmental trajectories and interactions.

Developmental trajectories across neurocognition, symptoms, imaging, and anthropometry are modelled using generalized additive mixed models (GAMM), generalized additive models for location, scale, and shape (GAMLSS), and latent growth or mixture models (Holla et al., 2025).

Emphasizing on generalized transdiagnostic mechanisms instead of discrete diagnostic categories, PARAM enables individual-level inference.

fNIRS Application

Photon Cap C20 is used to collect resting-state fNIRS data. Activity from the prefrontal cortex is recorded for up to 15 minutes at baseline and follow-up visits, with at least 10 minutes of usable, high-quality data retained after processing.

The Photon Cap system uses 16 LED sources and 10 detectors arranged over the bilateral prefrontal cortex. It incorporates both long- and short-separation channels to distinguish cortical signals from physiological artifacts.

The recorded data are processed with a standardized channel-level quality checks, calibration and physiological artifacts removal, as well as estimation of functional connectivity measures. The sessions are repeated if signal quality is insufficient to ensure reliable, consistent measurements throughout the study.

Such implementation of the Photon Cap allows PARAM to integrate non-invasive brain activity measurements alongside MRI to help chart neurodevelopmental and functional developmental trajectories from early life into adulthood.

Potential Implications

Holla et al. (2025) aim to provide important insights into how nutrition, caregiving, education, and environmental conditions influence development from childhood through adolescence. The focus on prenatal and early childhood stages helps identify sensitive periods for prevention, while follow-up into adolescence and young adulthood clarifies risks during key life transitions.

Potential outputs include developmental reference charts, exposure-trajectory maps, and risk stratification tools to support maternal-child health programs, environmental policies, and digital wellbeing initiatives (Holla et al., 2025).

An open, governed-access database and biobank will also support further research and international collaboration.

Based on original publication: Holla, B., Sharma, E., Venkataramanan, S. et al. The PAthways to Resilience And Mental health (PARAM) project: protocol for a multi-site developmental cohort in India. BMC Psychiatry 25, 1051 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07492-x

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Loneliness is becoming a serious health issue worldwide, pushing researchers to look for new ways to help people feel more connected.

Introduction

In their study, Moffat et al. (2025) raised the question of increasing health risks caused by loneliness. Particularly, the study focused on the efficiency of intergenerational community programs bringing younger and older people together. It helps older adults stay physically, socially, and cognitively healthier, while also reducing younger adults’ negative stereotypes about aging. 

The study implies that because of these benefits, doctors are increasingly recommending participation in community programs, highlighting the acknowledgement of social connection as part of healthcare. However, the mechanisms behind the benefits were unclear, since most evidence of improvement comes from participants’ self-evaluation and earlier behavioral studies, not physiological data.

To shed light on the physiological side of relationship building and explain how these relationships produce positive effects, Moffat et al. (2025) conducted a longitudinal hyperscanning study using two Photon Cap devices provided through the Cortivision Pathfinder program.

Methods and Materials

Participants

Using a six-week art program, Moffat et al. (2025) followed 122 participants – 31 older adults (69+ years) and 91 younger adults (18-35 years) – from Zurich, Switzerland, recruited through universities, senior community groups, and social media.

Participants were paired into either intergenerational or same-generation teams based on their availability to attend the sessions. Gender matching was not prioritised due to scheduling differences. All pairs joined the study as strangers.

Procedure

The research team tracked changes in social wellbeing, how well the pairs worked together, and how closely their brain activity aligned during interactions using a hyperscanning approach, which allowed researchers to examine interpersonal neural synchrony (INS), or how closely people’s brain activity aligns during interaction.

Self-evaluation

At the start of each session, participants completed a short self-report questionnaire measuring overall, emotional, and social loneliness, and at the end of each session, participants rated how close they felt to their partner using a simple visual scale showing different levels of overlap between two circles. 

Participants reported their attitudes toward people of different age groups. They rated people their own age as well as people from another generation (older or younger). This allowed us to track changes in attitudes toward other generations over time.

Photon Cap use

Moffat et al. (2025) measured brain activity using two Photon Cap and Cortiview software which allowed participants to move and interact naturally similar to real-world social interactions. Each Photon Cap measured brain activity over key social brain areas (IFG and TPJ) using 16 light emitters and 10 light detectors, placed using standard 10-5 EEG placement based on brain mapping from the Neurosynth database. After placing the caps, a 3D scan of each participant’s head was created and then processed using MATLAB and the FieldTrip toolbox to ensure the sensors were positioned accurately over the regions of interest (ROI), allowing precise measurement of brain activity during interactions (Moffat et al., 2025).

Results

According to Moffat et al. (2025), the participants in intergenerational pairs reported feeling less lonely and more socially close than those in same-generation pairs. These benefits increased over repeated sessions for both groups.

Attitudes toward other generations remained stable overall. However, intergenerational pairs felt equally positive toward their own and the other generation, whereas same-generation pairs favored their own. 

Brain data revealed robust INS especially during collaborative drawing, with stronger and more widespread synchrony emerging over time. These effects were most pronounced in brain regions linked to social cognition and coordination and differed by task and pair type, highlighting distinct neural dynamics for intergenerational versus same-generation interactions.

INS data was meaningfully related to self-reported experience: greater synchrony was associated with lower loneliness, higher social closeness, and more positive intergenerational attitudes in specific contexts, suggesting that INS captures both the social and emotional quality of interaction and holds promise as a neural marker of changes in loneliness.

Based on preprint publication: Moffat, R., Dumas, G., & Cross, E. S. (2025). Longitudinal intergenerational hyperscanning reveals indices of relationship formation and loneliness (Preprint). bioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2025.10.14.682029

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Introduction

The experiment

Participants

Procedure

The full sequence of procedural steps. (Figure 2 in Yang et al., 2025)

Data acquisition

Photon Cap channel layout over the frontal lobe during the procedure.

(Figure 4 in Yang et al., 2025)

Outcome

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Introduction

The verbal fluency tests (VFT) are widely used to study frontal cortex activity in clinical groups and cognitive neuroscience research. Traditionally, these tasks are analyzed using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), but there is growing interest in using fNIRS to measure oxygenated (oxy-Hb) and deoxygenated hemoglobin (deoxy-Hb) in brain tissue. 

Commonly, VFTs are combined with fNIRS to study individuals with schizophrenia, depression, and bipolar disorder, as well as research on aging and dementia. These tests usually last up to 1 minute and are divided into phonemic fluency, focused on pronouncing words with particular letter(s) and semantic fluency – naming words within a particular category (animals, fruits etc). This division elicits hemodynamic responses in the corresponding brain regions involved in task performance.

However, Krukow et al. (2025) consider that recent research has highlighted the limitations of standard VFTs. The cognitive and linguistic specificity of VFT remains unclear. Studies have shown that phonemic VFT activates the frontal cortex more strongly than semantic VFT. Moreover, factors such as processing speed, verbal intelligence, executive functioning, and education level significantly influence performance.

Combined Letter Fluency Task

According to Krukow et al. (2025), some alternations for VFTs have already been considered, such as picking words which did not contain a particular letter from an assigned category; or switching between two or more-word categories, which relied on cognitive flexibility and demanded more involvement of a working memory.

Since none of those modified verbal fluency tasks (VFTs) examined whether such tasks reveal any difference in patterns of frontal cortex activation compared to standard initial letter fluency tests (ILFT), Krukow et al. (2025) proposed a new task—the CLFT.

The purpose of the study was to observe dynamic changes in frontal cortex activity using fNIRS, aiming to detect behavioral and hemodynamic differences during two tasks—the CLFT and the traditional ILFT—and to compare their activation patterns. More about the study here.

The procedure

Participants

The study involved 35 participants, but only 32 were successfully evaluated due to signal artifacts in the fNIRS data from 3 participants, who were eventually excluded from the analysis.

All participants were adults, with an average age of 22.6 ± 2.8 years for females and 25.0 ± 6.1 years for males; all were Caucasian, had no recorded neurological disorders or chronic pain; all were based in Lublin (Poland, EU), where the study was conducted. Participation was voluntary and included established financial compensation.

Methods & Materials

According to Krukow et al. (2025), the procedure was conducted using a computer with pre-installed PsychoPy software (version 2023.2.3v79), specifically designed for this test, and a Photon Cap C20 fNIRS system, to measure brain activity.

Instructions and tasks were displayed on a monitor positioned at eye level to minimize downward head tilt during the examination. Spoken responses were digitally recorded and manually analyzed according to linguistic standards. 

Participants completed two tasks: 

1. the traditional initial letter fluency task (ILFT) (5 rounds, 60 seconds each)—verbally generated as many words as possible beginning with a given letter, presented in a randomized order for each participant.

2. the combined letter fluency task (CLFT)—similar to ILFT, except participants had to generate as many words as possible that began with a specific consonant, while avoiding a specific vowel.

Initially, half of the participants began with the ILFT procedure, while the other half started with the CLFT procedure. Each task session lasted less than 15 minutes.

The study was intentionally divided into two separate sessions spaced 7-8 days apart due to cognitive load and in order to control transfer effects. 

Optical signals were recorded using a two-wavelength (760 and 850 nm) continuous-wave system, equipped with a 32-channel montage covering the forehead regions of each participant. The collected data, sampled at 5 Hz, was analyzed using CortiPrism software (v. 06.2023). Photon Cap recordings were first converted from raw intensity to optical density using the modified Beer-Lambert Law. Motion artifacts were subsequently corrected using the TDDR—Temporal Derivative Distribution Repair algorithm (as shown in Fig. 4 of the study report, based on CortiPrism data). 

Fig. 4: Channel distribution and regions of interest (ROIs) analyzed in the frontal cortex, as visualized using CortiPrism software v.1.2.2).

From: Effects of the combined letter fluency task on frontal cortex regional and dynamic oxygenation patterns

Evaluation criteria

Krukow et al. (2025) considered responses correct if the participants followed the task instructions and if the produced words contained none of the following errors: repetitions, incorrect initial letters, use of proper nouns, or CLFT-specific vowel rule violations. Additionally, speech was examined for groups of words related by sound or meaning, and shifts between such groups, using phonetic and semantic criteria.

Results

Photon Cap C20 data analysis

Krukow et al. (2025) stated, that oxy-Hb concentration outcomes were analyzed with respect to task, time and lateralization, as well as their interactions across three distinct Regions of Interest (ROIs): orbital/frontopolar cortex (OFC), lateral frontal cortex (LF), and middle/superior frontal cortex (pre-SMA).

The changes in hemoglobin concentration within three ROIs was analyzed across four time segments: 0–15, 15–30, 30–45, and 45–60 seconds, using mixed-model repeated-measures ANOVA approach (2 task types * (4*15 sec consecutive intervals) (as shown in Fig. 1 of the study report).

Fig. 1: Task × Time-on-Task ANOVA results for CLFT and ILFT.

From: Effects of the combined letter fluency task on frontal cortex regional and dynamic oxygenation patterns

A repeated measures ANOVA method revealed (as shown in Fig. 2 of the study report): 

• in the OFC region—the oxy-Hb concentration was highly time-reliant, showing a significant increase in the final 15 seconds of the task (45–60 sec) compared to the start (0–15 sec). The higher oxy-Hb concentration on the left side of the brain signaled a significant effect of lateralization. No other effects or interactions reached significance.

• in the LF region—similar to OFC, oxy-Hb levels were affected by time, since oxy-Hb significantly increased during both the 15–30 sec and 45–60 sec intervals compared to the initial 0–15 sec segment. Additionally, the oxy-Hb levels during the 30–45 sec interval were significantly higher than during the 0–15 sec interval. A main effect of lateralization was also found with higher oxy-Hb levels on the left side compared to the right, with no other main or significant effects.

• in the pre-SMA region—a significant interaction between time, task type, and brain lateralization was detected. Further contrastive analysis indicated a notable drop in oxy-Hb concentration on the right hemisphere during the 0–15 sec interval during the CLFT compared to the ILFT.

Fig. 2: Brain activity (oxy-Hb changes) over time and between left and right hemispheres in different frontal regions. Panels A–D show timing and lateralization effects; panels E–F compare two types of word fluency tasks (ILFT vs. CLFT). Results are statistically corrected for multiple tests.

From: Effects of the combined letter fluency task on frontal cortex regional and dynamic oxygenation patterns

Conclusion

The study aimed to examine how CLFT affects brain activity by comparing it to a standard phonemic fluency task. The analysis focused on differences in oxy-Hb response patterns between the two tasks, rather than comparing them to a baseline state.

While assessing the clinical utility of CLFT was not the primary objective, the results suggest that it may be a valuable tool for exploring cognitive selection processes and merits further investigation.

This demonstrates the reliability of our devices – such as Photon Cap—for accurate data acquisition and processing in experimental clinical studies. Ultimately, the data collected can support the ongoing development of improved methods for studying and visualizing brain activity.

1. This blog post is based on open-access publication: Krukow, P., Kopiś-Posiej, N., Rodríguez-González, V. et al. Effects of the combined letter fluency task on frontal cortex regional and dynamic oxygenation patterns. Sci Rep 15, 26468 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-12558-7. ︎

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How do autism spectrum disorder (ASD) shape the way we learn and generalise new information? Stacy Moppert has just wrapped up a Pathfinder-funded investigation that tackles this question head-on, pairing classic conditioning paradigms with monitoring the prefrontal cortex activity (PFC) via our Photon Cap functional-near-infrared-spectroscopy (fNIRS).

Generalization is the ability to apply what you have learned in one context to new but related situations. It is essential for flexible behavior. Findings on learning and ASD have been mixed, with ASD being linked to benefits and deficits. Stacy Moppert wants to clarify behavioural and neuronal signatures of learning-based generalization in relation to ASD.

Method

Hypothesis

Stacy Moppert hypothesized that those with higher autistic traits, as determined by the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) questionnaire, will have a greater amount of individual differences in their ability to generalize and increased prefrontal cortex activity compared to those with lower autistic traits who will have similar patterns of generalization and lower prefrontal cortex activity.

Participants

The research was conducted on 60 psychology students. The subjects completed the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) questionnaire, on the basis of which they were selected into groups with high autistic traits and low autistic traits. 

Procedure

In the first experiment, subjects were trained to learn the pairing between the Prototype shape, referred to as a Sea Ghost Prototype, and the image of a dog (CS+) and the unpairing of a Prototype shape from another family, referred to as a Non-Sea Ghost Prototype (CS-). After the initial training, subjects were given a generalization task to identify if a shape is a Sea Ghost or Not a Sea-Ghost. In total, 10 shapes, with 5 being distortions of a Sea Ghost and 5 being a distortion of a Non-Sea Ghost was used in the task. Then, participants was asked to identify which stimuli evoke conditioned responses in recognition trials.

In the second experiment the same college students were trained on the same paradigm using a spectrum of colors stemming from blue to green. The blue color (CS+) was presented with a dog picture while an unpairing of the stimulus will occur with a green color (CS-). Afterwards, the adults were participating in a generalization task with 14 stimuli stemming from blue patch (CS+) to the unpairing green color (CS-). Then, participants were asked to identify what stimulus results in the (CS+) in recognition trials.

Summary

Researchers used our Photon Cap to investigate the relationship between activity in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), performance in a generalisation task and autistic traits. The results of this study will expand our knowledge of heterogeneous learning outcomes and atypical brain activity associated with autistic traits. Examining autistic traits in a diverse population can help us to better understand the neural mechanisms behind specific traits and learning, thereby mimicking the heterogeneity observed in this disorder.

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Discover how Diffuse Optical Tomography (DOT) transforms traditional fNIRS into 3D brain imaging—bringing richer spatial resolution and new research possibilities.

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In the annals of space exploration, certain milestones redefine our understanding of human potential. Cortivision's upcoming PhotonGrav project is poised to be one such milestone: the first-ever deployment of a fully operational brain-computer interface (BCI) in the microgravity environment of space.

Patch of the experiment PhotonGrav – Thoughts over gravity; a test of using fNIRS-based Brain-Computer Interface in LEO conditions.

Author:J.Marzoch

Swedish astronaut Markus Wandt using Cortivision’s fNIRS in the Orbital Architecture Activity, from KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Ax-3 mission on the ISS, January 2024

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